In fact, it is now a critical commonplace to refer to the proliferation of text-bound images of a modern bureaucratic state and its attending cultural and educational institutions in nineteenth-century Spanish America as the emergence of a "lettered city. The various versions of the translatio that coexisted in the later nineteenth century had historically been attached to very specific models of the state. Although Caro does not mention such concepts by name, he engages them in ways that anticipate Carl Schmitt's powerful critique of parliamentary democracy. Along the way, I also explain how the theorists of sovereignty whose ideas enjoyed wide currency in Caro's time-from Augustine to Juan de Mariana and on to Antonio NariƱo-often resorted to the tropes of translation (notably the translatio imperii and the pactum translationis) to signify the transmission and legitimation of political authority. To this end, it surveys the work of several philologists and translators (particularly that of the grammarian and president Miguel Antonio Caro ) whose literary careers are inextricably bound up with their political life. This essay sets out to interpret the relation of translational practices to the exercise of power in late-nineteenth-century Colombia. 1 The Conservative Lettered City and the Twilight of Parliamentary Democracy
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